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@@ -1,3385 +1 @@
-The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO
-!!!The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO
-!Tom Fawcett
-
- Bootdisk-HOWTO@linuxdoc.org
-
-
-
-
-Copyright (c) 1995-2002 by Tom Fawcett
-
-
-
-v4.5, January 2002
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- This document describes how to design and build boot/root
-diskettes for Linux. These disks can be used as rescue disks or
-to test new system components. You should be reasonably
-familiar with system administration tasks before attempting to
-build a bootdisk. If you just want a rescue disk to have for
-emergencies, see Appendix A.1.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-----; __Table of Contents__; 1. Preface: ; 1.1. Version notes; 1.2. To do list; 1.3. Feedback and credits; 1.4. Distribution policy; 2. Introduction; 3. Bootdisks and the boot process: ; 3.1. The boot process; 3.2. Disk types; 4. Building a root filesystem: ; 4.1. Overview; 4.2. Creating the filesystem; 4.3. Populating the filesystem; 4.4. Providing for PAM and NSS; 4.5. Modules; 4.6. Some final details; 4.7. Wrapping it up; 5. Choosing a kernel; 6. Putting them together: Making the diskette(s): ; 6.1. Transferring the kernel with LILO; 6.2. Transferring the kernel without LILO; 6.3. Setting the ramdisk word; 6.4. Transferring the root filesystem; 7. Troubleshooting, or The Agony of Defeat; 8. Reducing root filesystem size: ; 8.1. Increase the diskette density; 8.2. Replace common utilities with !BusyBox; 8.3. Use an alternate shell; 8.4. Strip libraries and binaries; 8.5. Move files to a utility disk; 9. Miscellaneous topics: ; 9.1. Non-ramdisk root filesystems; 9.2. Building a utility disk; 10. How the pros do it; 11. Creating bootable CD-ROMs: ; 11.1. What is El Torito?; 11.2. How it Works; 11.3. How to make it work; 11.4. Create Win9x Bootable CD-Roms; 12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list; A. Resources and pointers: ; A.1. Pre-made Bootdisks; A.2. Rescue packages; A.3. LILO -- the Linux loader; A.4. Ramdisk usage; A.5. The Linux boot process; B. LILO boot error codes; C. Sample root filesystem listings; D. Sample utility disk directory listing
-!!!1. Preface
-
-
-
-
-
-
- This document may be outdated. If the date on the title page is
-more than six months ago, please check the Bootdisk-HOWTO homepage to see if a more recent version exists.
-
-
-
-
-Although this document should be legible in its text form,
-it looks much better in Postscript, PDF or HTML forms because of
-the typographical conventions used.
-
-
-----
-!!1.1. Version notes
-
-Graham Chapman wrote the original Bootdisk-HOWTO and supported it
-through version 3.1. Tom Fawcett started as co-author around the time
-kernel v2 was introduced, and he is the document's current maintainer.
-Chapman has disappeared from the Linux community and his whereabouts are
-currently unknown.
-
-
-
-
-This information is intended for Linux on the
-''Intel'' platform. Much of this information may be
-applicable to Linux on other processors, but I have no first-hand
-experience or information about this. If you have experience with
-bootdisks on other platforms, please contact me.
-
-
-----
-!!1.2. To do list
-
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
- User-mode-linux ( http://user-mode-linux.sourceforge.net) seems like a great
-way to test out bootdisks without having to reboot your machine
-constantly. I haven't been able to get it to work. If anyone has
-been using this consistently with homemade bootdisks, please let
-me know.
-
-
-
-#
-#
-
- Re-analyze distribution bootdisks and update the "How the
-Pros do it" section.
-
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Figure out just how much of the init-getty-login sequence can
-be simplified, and rip it out. A few people have said that
-init can be linked directly to /bin/sh; if so, and if this imposes
-no great limitations, alter the instructions to do this.
-This would eliminate the need for getty, login, gettydefs, and
-maybe all that PAM and NSS stuff.
-
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Go through the 2.4 kernel source code again and write a
-detailed explanation of how the boot process and ramdisk-loading
-process work, in detail. (If only so that I understand it
-better.) There are some issues about initrd and limitations of
-booting devices (eg flash memory) that I don't understand yet.
-
-
-
-#
-#
-
- Delete section that describes how to upgrade existing
-distribution bootdisks. This is usually more trouble than it's
-worth.
-
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Replace rdev commands with LILO keywords.
-
-
-
-#
-
-
-----
-!!1.3. Feedback and credits
-
-I welcome any feedback, good or bad, on the content of this
-document. I have done my best to ensure that the instructions and
-information herein are accurate and reliable, but I don't know
-everything and I don't keep up on kernel development. Please let me
-know if you find errors or omissions. When writing, please indicate the
-version number of the document you're referencing. Be nice.
-
-
-
-
- We thank the many people who assisted with corrections and
-suggestions. Their contributions have made it far better than we
-could ever have done alone.
-
-
-
-
- Send comments and corrections to the author at the email address
-above. ''Please read Section 7
-before asking me questions''. Do
-''not'' email me disk images.
-
-
-----
-!!1.4. Distribution policy
-
- Copyright © 1995-2002 by Tom Fawcett and Graham Chapman.
-This document may be distributed under the terms set forth in the Linux Documentation Project
-License. Please contact the authors if you are unable to get
-the license.
-
-
-
-
- This is free documentation. It is distributed in the hope
-that it will be useful, but ''without any
-warranty''; without even the implied warranty of
-''merchantability'' or ''fitness for a
-particular purpose''.
-
-
-----
-!!!2. Introduction
-
-Linux boot disks are useful in a number of situations, such as testing a
-new kernel, recovering from a disk failure (anything from a lost boot
-sector to a disk head crash), fixing a disabled system, or upgrading
-critical system files safely (such as libc.so).
-
-
-
-There are several ways of obtaining boot disks:
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-Use one from a distribution such as Slackware. This will at
-least allow you to boot.
-
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Use a rescue package to set up disks designed to be used
-as rescue disks.
-
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Learn what is required for each of the types of disk to operate,
-then build your own.
-
-
-*
-Some people choose the last option so they can do it themselves. That way,
-if something breaks, they can work out what to do to fix it. Plus it's a
-great way to learn about how a Linux system works.
-
-
-
-This document assumes some basic familiarity with Linux system
-administration concepts. For example, you should know about
-directories, filesystems and floppy diskettes. You should know how to
-use __mount__ and __df__. You should
-know what /etc/passwd and
-fstab files are for and what they look like. You
-should know that most of the commands in this HOWTO should be run as
-root.
-
-
-
-Constructing a bootdisk from scratch can be complicated. If you
-haven't read the Linux FAQ and related documents, such as the Linux
-Installation HOWTO and the Linux Installation Guide, you should not be
-trying to build boot diskettes. If you just need a working bootdisk
-for emergencies, it is ''much'' easier to download a
-prefabricated one. See Appendix A.1, below, for where to
-find these.
-
-----
-!!!3. Bootdisks and the boot process
-
-A bootdisk is basically a miniature, self-contained Linux system on a
-diskette. It must perform many of the same functions that a complete
-full-size Linux system performs. Before trying to build one you should
-understand the basic Linux boot process. Here we present the basics, which
-are sufficient for understanding the rest of this document. Many details and
-alternative options have been omitted.
-
-----
-!!3.1. The boot process
-
-
-All PC systems start the boot process by executing code in ROM
-(specifically, the ''BIOS'') to load the sector from
-sector , cylinder 0 of the boot drive. The boot drive is usually the
-first floppy drive (designated A: in DOS and
-/dev/fd0 in Linux). The BIOS then tries to execute
-this sector. On most bootable disks, sector , cylinder 0 contains either:
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-code from a boot loader such as LILO, which locates the kernel,
-loads it and executes it to start the boot proper; or
-
-
-*
-*
-
-the start of an operating system kernel, such as Linux.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-If a Linux kernel has been raw-copied to a diskette, the first sector of the
-disk will be the first sector of the Linux kernel itself. This first sector
-will continue the boot process by loading the rest of the kernel from the boot
-device.
-
-
-
-When the kernel is completely loaded, it initializes device drivers and its
-internal data structures. Once it is completely initialized, it consults a
-special location in its image called the ''ramdisk word''.
-This word tells it how and where to find its ''root
-filesystem''. A root filesystem is simply a filesystem that will be
-mounted as ``/''. The kernel has to be told where to
-look for the root filesystem; if it cannot find a loadable image there, it
-halts.
-
-
-
-In some boot situations - often when booting from a diskette
-- the root filesystem is loaded into a ''ramdisk'',
-which is RAM accessed by the system as if it were a disk. RAM is several
-orders of magnitude faster than a floppy disk, so system operation is fast
-from a ramdisk. Also, the kernel can load a ''compressed
-filesystem'' from the floppy and uncompress it onto the ramdisk,
-allowing many more files to be squeezed onto the diskette.
-
-
-
-Once the root filesystem is loaded and mounted, you see a message like:
-
- VFS: Mounted root (ext2 filesystem) readonly.
-
-
-
-Once the system has loaded a root filesystem successfully, it tries to
-execute the init program (in /bin or
-/sbin). init reads its
-configuration file /etc/inittab, looks for a line
-designated sysinit, and executes the named script. The
-sysinit script is usually something like
-/etc/rc or /etc/init.d/boot. This
-script is a set of shell commands that set up basic system services, such as
-running __fsck__ on hard disks, loading necessary kernel
-modules, initializing swapping, initializing the network, and mounting disks
-mentioned in /etc/fstab.
-
-
-
-This script often invokes various other scripts to do modular
-initialization. For example, in the common !SysVinit structure, the directory
-/etc/rc.d/ contains a complex structure of subdirectories
-whose files specify how to enable and shut down most system services. However,
-on a bootdisk the sysinit script is often very simple.
-
-
-
-When the sysinit script finishes control returns to __init__,
-which then enters the ''default runlevel'', specified in
-inittab with the initdefault keyword.
-The runlevel line usually specifies a program like __getty__,
-which is responsible for handling commununications through the console and
-ttys. It is the __getty__ program which prints the familiar
-``login:'' prompt. The __getty__ program in
-turn invokes the __login__ program to handle login validation
-and to set up user sessions.
-
-----
-!!3.2. Disk types
-
-Having reviewed the basic boot process, we can now define various
-kinds of disks involved. We classify disks into four types. The
-discussion here and throughout this document uses the term ``disk'' to
-refer to floppy diskettes unless otherwise specified, though most of
-the discussion could apply equally well to hard disks.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-; boot:
-
-A disk containing a kernel which can be booted. The disk
-can be used to boot the kernel, which then may load a root file system on
-another disk. The kernel on a bootdisk usually must be told where to find
-its root filesystem.
-
-
-
-Often a bootdisk loads a root filesystem from another diskette, but it is
-possible for a bootdisk to be set up to load a hard disk's root filesystem
-instead. This is commonly done when testing a new kernel (in fact,
-``__make zdisk__'' will create such a bootdisk automatically
-from the kernel source code).
-
-; root:
-
-A disk with a filesystem containing files
-required to run a Linux system. Such a disk does not necessarily
-contain either a kernel or a boot loader.
-
-
-
-A root disk can be used to run the system independently of any other
-disks, once the kernel has been booted. Usually the root disk is
-automatically copied to a ramdisk. This makes root disk accesses much
-faster, and frees up the disk drive for a utility disk.
-
-; boot/root:
-
-A disk which contains both the kernel and a root filesystem. In other
-words, it contains everything necessary to boot and run a Linux system
-without a hard disk. The advantage of this type of disk is that is it
-compact - everything required is on a single disk. However, the gradually
-increasing size of everything means that it is increasingly difficult to
-fit everything on a single diskette, even with compression.
-
-; utility:
-
-A disk which contains a filesystem, but is not
-intended to be mounted as a root file system. It is an additional data
-disk. You would use this type of disk to carry additional utilities where
-you have too much to fit on your root disk.
-
-
-
-
-
-In general, when we talk about ``building a bootdisk'' we mean
-creating both the boot (kernel) and root (files) portions. They may
-be either together (a single boot/root disk) or separate (boot + root
-disks). The most flexible approach for rescue diskettes is probably
-to use separate boot and root diskettes, and one or more utility
-diskettes to handle the overflow.
-
-----
-!!!4. Building a root filesystem
-
-Creating the root filesystem involves selecting files necessary for the
-system to run. In this section we describe how to build a
-''compressed root filesystem''. A less common option is to
-build an uncompressed filesystem on a diskette that is directly mounted as
-root; this alternative is described in Section 9.1.
-
-----
-!!4.1. Overview
-
-A root filesystem must contain everything needed to support a full Linux
-system. To be able to do this, the disk must include the minimum requirements
-for a Linux system:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-The basic file system structure,
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Minimum set of directories: /dev,
-/proc,
-/bin,
-/etc,
-/lib,
-/usr,
-/tmp,
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Basic set of utilities: sh, ls, cp,
-mv, etc.,
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Minimum set of config files: rc, inittab, fstab, etc.,
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Devices: /dev/hd*, /dev/tty*, /dev/fd0, etc.,
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Runtime library to provide basic functions used by utilities.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-Of course, any system only becomes useful when you can run something
-on it, and a root diskette usually only becomes useful when you
-can do something like:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-Check a file system on another drive, for example to check your root file
-system on your hard drive, you need to be able to boot Linux from another
-drive, as you can with a root diskette system. Then you can run
-__fsck__ on your original root drive while it is not
-mounted.
-
-
-*
-*
-
- Restore all or part of your original root drive from backup using
-archive and compression utilities such as cpio,
-tar, gzip and
-ftape.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-We describe how to build a ''compressed'' filesystem, so
-called because it is compressed on disk and, when booted, is uncompressed onto
-a ramdisk. With a compressed filesystem you can fit many files (approximately
-six megabytes) onto a standard 1440K diskette. Because the filesystem is much
-larger than a diskette, it cannot be built on the diskette. We have to build
-it elsewhere, compress it, then copy it to the diskette.
-
-----
-!!4.2. Creating the filesystem
-
-In order to build such a root filesystem, you need a spare device that
-is large enough to hold all the files before compression. You will
-need a device capable of holding about four megabytes. There are
-several choices:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
- Use a ''ramdisk'' (DEVICE =
-/dev/ram0). In this case, memory is used to simulate
-a disk drive. The ramdisk must be large enough to hold a filesystem of the
-appropriate size. If you use LILO, check your configuration file
-(/etc/lilo.conf) for a line like RAMDISK =
-nnn which determines the maximum RAM that can be allocated to a
-ramdisk. The default is 4096K, which should be sufficient. You should
-probably not try to use such a ramdisk on a machine with less than 8MB of
-RAM.
-Check to make sure you have a device like /dev/ram0,
-/dev/ram or /dev/ramdisk. If not, create
-/dev/ram0 with __mknod__ (major number
-1, minor ).
-
-
-*
-*
-
-If you have an unused hard disk partition that is large enough (several
-megabytes), this is acceptable.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Use a ''loopback device'', which allows a disk file to be
-treated as a device. Using a loopback device you can create a three
-megabyte file on your hard disk and build the filesystem on it.
-
-
-
-Type __man losetup__ for instructions on using loopback
-devices. If you don't have __losetup__, you can get it
-along with compatible versions of __mount__ and
-__unmount__ from the util-linux package
-in the directory ftp://ftp.win.tue.nl/pub/linux/utils/util-linux/.
-
-
-
- If you do not have a loop device (/dev/loop0,
-/dev/loop1, etc.) on your system, you will have to
-create one with ``__mknod /dev/loop0 b 7 __''. Once you've
-installed these special __mount__ and
-__umount__ binaries, create a temporary file on a hard disk
-with enough capacity (eg, /tmp/fsfile). You can use a
-command like:
-
- dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/fsfile bs=1k count=nnn
-to create an nnn-block file.
-
-
-
-Use the file name in place of DEVICE below. When you issue a
-mount command you must include the option -o loop to tell
-mount to use a loopback device.
-
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-After you've chosen one of these options, prepare the DEVICE
-with:
-
- dd if=/dev/zero of=DEVICE bs=1k count=4096
-
-
-
-This command zeroes out the device.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Zeroing the device is critical because the filesystem will be compressed
-later, so all unused portions should be filled with zeroes to achieve maximum
-compression. Keep this in mind whenever you move or delete files on the
-filesystem. The filesystem will correctly de-allocate the blocks,
-''but it will not zero them out again''. If you do a lot of
-deletions and copying, your compressed filesystem may end up much larger than
-necessary.
-
-
-
-
-Next, create the filesystem. The Linux kernel recognizes two file system
-types for root disks to be automatically copied to ramdisk. These are minix
-and ext2, of which ext2 is preferred. If using ext2, you may find it useful
-to use the -N option to specify more inodes than the
-default; -N 2000 is suggested so that you don't run out of
-inodes. Alternatively, you can save on inodes by removing lots of unnecessary
-/dev files. __mke2fs__ will by default
-create 360 inodes on a 1.44Mb diskette. I find that 120 inodes is ample on my
-current rescue root diskette, but if you include all the devices in
-/dev you will easily exceed 360. Using a compressed root
-filesystem allows a larger filesystem, and hence more inodes by default, but
-you may still need to either reduce the number of files or increase the number
-of inodes.
-
-
-
-So the command you use will look like:
-
- mke2fs -m 0 -N 2000 DEVICE
-
-
-
-(If you're using a loopback device, the disk file you're using should be
-supplied in place of this DEVICE.)
-
-
-
-The __mke2fs__ command will automatically detect the
-space available and configure itself accordingly. The
-``-m '' parameter prevents it from reserving space
-for root, and hence provides more usable space on the disk.
-
-
-
-Next, mount the device:
-
- mount -t ext2 DEVICE /mnt
-(You must create a mount point /mnt if it
-does not already exist.) In the remaining sections, all destination
-directory names are assumed to be relative to /mnt.
-
-----
-!!4.3. Populating the filesystem
-
-Here is a reasonable minimum set of directories for your root filesystem
-[1
]:
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-/dev -- Device files, required to perform I/O
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/proc -- Directory stub required by the
-proc filesystem
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/etc -- System configuration files
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/sbin -- Critical system binaries
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/bin -- Essential binaries considered part of the
-system
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/lib -- Shared libraries to provide run-time
-support
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/mnt -- A mount point for maintenance on other
-disks
-
-
-*
-*
-
-/usr -- Additional utilities and applications
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-Three of these directories will be empty on the root filesystem, so they
-only need to be created with __mkdir__. The
-/proc directory is basically a stub under which the
-proc filesystem is placed. The directories /mnt and
-/usr are only mount points for use after the boot/root
-system is running. Hence again, these directories only need to be created.
-
-
-
-The remaining four directories are described in the following sections.
-
-----
-!4.3.1. /dev
-
- A /dev directory containing a special file
-for all devices to be used by the system is mandatory for any Linux
-system. The directory itself is a normal directory, and can be
-created with mkdir in the normal way. The device
-special files, however, must be created in a special way, using the
-__mknod__ command.
-
-
-
- There is a shortcut, though - copy devices files from your
-existing hard disk /dev directory. The only requirement
-is that you copy the device special files using -R option.
-This will copy the directory without attempting to copy the contents of the
-files. Be sure to use an ''upper case R''.
-For example:
-
- cp -dpR /dev/fd[[01]* /mnt/dev
-cp -dpR /dev/tty[[-6] /mnt/dev
-assuming that the diskette is mounted at /mnt. The
-dp switches ensure that symbolic links are copied as links,
-rather than using the target file, and that the original file attributes are
-preserved, thus preserving ownership information.
-
-
-
-If you want to do it the hard way, use ls -l to display the
-major and minor device numbers for the devices you want, and create them on
-the diskette using mknod.
-
-
-
-However the devices files are created, check that any special devices
-you need have been placed on the rescue diskette. For example,
-ftape uses tape devices, so you will need to copy all of
-these if you intend to access your floppy tape drive from the bootdisk.
-
-
-
-Note that one inode is required for each device special file, and inodes
-can at times be a scarce resource, especially on diskette filesystems. You'll
-need to be selective about the device files you include. For example, if you
-do not have SCSI disks you can safely ignore /dev/sd*; if
-you don't intend to use serial ports you can ignore
-/dev/ttyS*.
-
-
-
-If, in building your root filesystem, you get the error No
-space left on device but a df command shows space
-still available, you have probably run out of inodes. A df
--i will display inode usage.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Be sure to include the following files from this directory:
-console, kmem, mem, null,
-ram0 and tty1.
-
-----
-!4.3.2. /etc
-
-The /etc directory contains configuration files. What it should contain
-depends on what programs you intend to run.
-On most systems, these can be divided into three groups:
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
-Required at all times, ''e.g.'' rc,
-fstab, passwd.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-May be required, but no one is too sure.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Junk that crept in.
-
-
-#
-Files which are not essential can usually be identified with the command:
-
- ls -ltru
-This lists files in reverse order of date last accessed, so if any
-files are not being accessed, they can be omitted from a root diskette.
-
-
-
-On my root diskettes, I have the number of config files down to
-15. This reduces my work to dealing with three sets of files:
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
-The ones I must configure for a boot/root system:
-
-
-
-
-
-##
-
-rc.d/* -- system startup and run level change scripts
-
-
-##
-##
-
-fstab -- list of file systems to be mounted
-
-
-##
-##
-
-inittab -- parameters for the
-__init__ process, the first process started at boot time.
-
-
-##
-##
-
-gettydefs -- parameters for the
-__init__ process, the first process started at boot time.
-
-
-##
-
-
-#
-#
-
-The ones I should tidy up for a boot/root system:
-
-
-
-
-
-##
-
-passwd -- Critical list of users, home directories, etc.
-
-
-##
-##
-
-group -- user groups.
-
-
-##
-##
-
-shadow -- passwords of users. You may not have this.
-
-
-##
-##
-
-termcap -- the terminal capability database.
-
-
-##
-
-
-
-If security is important, passwd and
-shadow should be pruned to avoid copying user passwords
-off the system, and so that unwanted logins are rejected when you boot from
-diskette.
-
-
-
-
-Be sure that passwd contains at least
-root. If you intend other users to login, be sure their
-home directories and shells exist.
-
-
-
-termcap, the terminal database, is typically several
-hundred kilobytes. The version on your boot/root diskette should be pruned
-down to contain only the terminal(s) you use, which is usually just the
-linux or linux-console entry.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-The rest. They work at the moment, so I leave them alone.
-
-
-#
-
-
-
-Out of this, I only really have to configure two files, and what they
-should contain is surprisingly small.
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-rc should contain:
-
- #!/bin/sh
-/bin/mount -av
-/bin/hostname Kangaroo
-Be sure it is executable, be sure it has a "#!" line at the top, and be sure
-any absolute filenames are correct. You don't really need to run
-__hostname__ - it just looks nicer if you do.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-fstab should contain at least:
-
- /dev/ram0 / ext2 defaults
-/dev/fd0 / ext2 defaults
-/proc /proc proc defaults
-You can copy entries from your existing fstab, but you
-should not automatically mount any of your hard disk partitions; use the
-noauto keyword with them. Your hard disk may be damaged
-or dead when the bootdisk is used.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-Your inittab should be changed so that its
-sysinit line runs rc or whatever
-basic boot script will be used. Also, if you want to ensure that users on
-serial ports cannot login, comment out all the entries for
-getty which include a ttys or
-ttyS device at the end of the line. Leave in the
-tty ports so that you can login at the console.
-
-
-
-A minimal inittab file looks like this:
-
- id:2:initdefault:
-si::sysinit:/etc/rc
-1:2345:respawn:/sbin/getty 9600 tty1
-2:23:respawn:/sbin/getty 9600 tty2
-The inittab file defines what the system will run in
-various states including startup, move to multi-user mode, etc.
-Check carefully the filenames mentioned in inittab; if
-init cannot find the program mentioned the bootdisk will
-hang, and you may not even get an error message.
-
-
-
-Note that some programs cannot be moved elsewhere because other programs have
-hardcoded their locations. For example, on my system,
-/etc/shutdown has hardcoded in it
-/etc/reboot. If I move reboot to
-/bin/reboot, and then issue a shutdown
-command, it will fail because it cannot find the reboot
-file.
-
-
-
-For the rest, just copy all the text files in your
-/etc directory, plus all the executables in your
-/etc directory that you cannot be sure you do not need.
-As a guide, consult the sample listing in Appendix C. Probably
-it will suffice to copy only those files, but systems differ a great deal, so
-you cannot be sure that the same set of files on your system is equivalent to
-the files in the list. The only sure method is to start with
-inittab and work out what is required.
-
-
-
-Most systems now use an /etc/rc.d/ directory
-containing shell scripts for different run levels. The minimum is a single
-rc script, but it may be simpler just to copy
-inittab and the /etc/rc.d
-directory from your existing system, and prune the shell scripts in the
-rc.d directory to remove processing not relevent to a
-diskette system environment.
-
-----
-!4.3.3. /bin and /sbin
-
-The /bin directory is a convenient place for extra
-utilities you need to perform basic operations, utilities such as
-__ls__, __mv__, __cat__ and
-__dd__. See Appendix C for an example list
-of files that go in a __/bin__ and
-/sbin directories. It does not include any of the
-utilities required to restore from backup, such as __cpio__,
-__tar__ and __gzip__. That is because I
-place these on a separate utility diskette, to save space on the boot/root
-diskette. Once the boot/root diskette is booted, it is copied to the
-ramdisk leaving the diskette drive free to mount another diskette, the
-utility diskette. I usually mount this as /usr.
-
-
-
- Creation of a utility diskette is described below in Section 9.2. It is probably desirable to maintain a copy of the
-same version of backup utilities used to write the backups so you don't
-waste time trying to install versions that cannot read your backup tapes.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Be sure to include the following programs: init,
-getty or equivalent, login, mount, some
-shell capable of running your rc scripts, a link from sh to the
-shell.
-
-----
-!4.3.4. /lib
-
-In /lib you place necessary shared libraries and
-loaders. If the necessary libraries are not found in your
-/lib directory then the system will be unable to boot.
-If you're lucky you may see an error message telling you why.
-
-
-
-Nearly every program requires at least the libc
-library, libc.so.''N'', where
-''N'' is the current version number. Check your
-/lib directory. The file
-libc.so.N is usually a symlink to a filename with a
-complete version number:
-
-
-
-
-% ls -l /lib/libc*
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 4016683 Apr 16 18:48 libc-2.1.1.so*
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 13 Apr 10 12:25 libc.so.6 -b libc-2.1.1.so*
-
-
-
- In this case, you want libc-2.1.1.so. To find
-other libraries you should go through all the binaries you plan to include
-and check their dependencies with __ldd__. For example:
-
- % ldd /sbin/mke2fs
-libext2fs.so.2 =b /lib/libext2fs.so.2 (0x40014000)
-libcom_err.so.2 =b /lib/libcom_err.so.2 (0x40026000)
-libuuid.so.1 =b /lib/libuuid.so.1 (0x40028000)
-libc.so.6 =b /lib/libc.so.6 (0x4002c000)
-/lib/ld-linux.so.2 =b /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000)
-Each file on the right-hand side is required. The file may be a symbolic
-link.
-
-
-
- Note that some libraries are ''quite large'' and
-will not fit easily on your root filesystem. For example, the
-libc.so listed above is about 4 meg. You will
-probably need to strip libraries when copying them to your root filesystem.
-See Section 8 for instructions.
-
-
-
-In /lib you must also include a loader for the libraries.
-The loader will be either ld.so (for A.OUT libraries,
-which are no longer common) or ld-linux.so (for
-ELF libraries). Newer versions of __ldd__ tell you exactly
-which loader is needed, as in the example above, but older versions may not.
-If you're unsure which you need, run the __file__ command on
-the library. For example:
-
-% file /lib/libc.so.4.7.2 /lib/libc.so.5.4.33 /lib/libc-2.1.1.so
-/lib/libc.so.4.7.2: Linux/i386 demand-paged executable (QMAGIC), stripped
-/lib/libc.so.5.4.33: ELF 32-bit LSB shared object, Intel 80386, version 1, stripped
-/lib/libc-2.1.1.so: ELF 32-bit LSB shared object, Intel 80386, version 1, not stripped
-The QMAGIC indicates that 4.7.2 is for
-A.OUT libraries, and ELF indicates that
-5.4.33 and 2.1.1 are for ELF.
-
-
-
-
-Copy the specific loader(s) you need to the root filesystem you're building.
-Libraries and loaders should be checked ''carefully'' against
-the included binaries. If the kernel cannot load a necessary library, the
-kernel may hang with no error message.
-
-----
-!!4.4. Providing for PAM and NSS
-
-Your system may require dynamically loaded libraries that are not visible to
-ldd. If you don't provide for these, you may have
-trouble logging in or using your bootdisk.
-
-----
-!4.4.1. PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules)
-
-If your system uses PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules), you must make some
-provision for it on your bootdisk. Briefly, PAM is a sophisticated modular
-method for authenticating users and controlling their access to services. An
-easy way to determine if your system uses PAM is run ldd
-on your login executable; if the output includes
-libpam.so, you need PAM.
-
-
-
-Fortunately, security is usually of no concern with bootdisks since
-anyone who has physical access to a machine can usually do anything they
-want anyway. Therefore, you can effectively disable PAM by creating a
-simple /etc/pam.conf file in your root filesystem that
-looks like this:
-
-OTHER auth optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
-OTHER account optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
-OTHER password optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
-OTHER session optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
-Also copy the file /lib/security/pam_permit.so to
-your root filesystem. This library is only about 8K so it imposes minimal
-overhead.
-
-
-
-This configuration allows anyone complete access to the files and
-services on your machine. If you care about security on your bootdisk for
-some reason, you'll have to copy some or all of your hard disk's PAM setup to
-your root filesystem. Be sure to read the PAM documentation carefully, and
-copy any libraries needed in /lib/security onto your root
-filesystem.
-
-
-
-You must also include /lib/libpam.so on your bootdisk.
-But you already know this since you ran ldd on
-/bin/login, which showed this dependency.
-
-----
-!4.4.2. NSS (Name Service Switch)
-
-If you are using glibc (aka libc6), you will have to make provisions
-for name services or you will not be able to login. The file
-/etc/nsswitch.conf controls database lookups for
-various servies. If you don't plan to access services from the
-network (eg, DNS or NIS lookups), you need only prepare a simple
-nsswitch.conf file that looks like this:
-
- passwd: files
-shadow: files
-group: files
-hosts: files
-services: files
-networks: files
-protocols: files
-rpc: files
-ethers: files
-netmasks: files
-bootparams: files
-automount: files
-aliases: files
-netgroup: files
-publickey: files
-This specifies that every service be provided only by local files.
-You will also need to include
-/lib/libnss_files.so.''X'',
-where ''X'' is 1 for glibc 2.0 and 2 for glibc 2.1.
-This library will be loaded dynamically to handle the file lookups.
-
-
-
-If you plan to access the network from your bootdisk, you may want to create a
-more elaborate nsswitch.conf file. See the
-nsswitch man page for details. You must include a file
-/lib/libnss_''service''.so.1
-for each ''service'' you specify.
-
-----
-!!4.5. Modules
-
- If you have a modular kernel, you must consider which modules you
-may want to load from your bootdisk after booting. You might want to
-include __ftape__ and __zftape__ modules if
-your backup tapes are on floppy tape, modules for SCSI devices if you have
-them, and possibly modules for PPP or SLIP support if you want to access
-the net in an emergency.
-
-
-
-These modules may be placed in /lib/modules. You should also
-include __insmod__, __rmmod__ and __lsmod__. Depending on whether you
-want to load modules automatically, you might also include __modprobe__,
-__depmod__ and __swapout__. If you use
-__kerneld__, include it along
-with /etc/conf.modules.
-
-
-
-However, the main advantage to using modules is that you can move non-critical
-modules to a utility disk and load them when needed, thus using less space on
-your root disk. If you may have to deal with many different devices, this
-approach is preferable to building one huge kernel with many drivers built in.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-In order to boot a compressed ext2 filesystem, you must have ramdisk and
-ext2 support built-in. ''They cannot be supplied as
-modules.''
-
-----
-!!4.6. Some final details
-
- Some system programs, such as __login__, complain if
-the file /var/run/utmp and the directory
-/var/log do not exist. So:
-
-
- mkdir -p /mnt/var/{log,run}
-touch /mnt/var/run/utmp
-
-Finally, after you have set up all the libraries you need, run
-__ldconfig__ to remake /etc/ld.so.cache on
-the root filesystem. The cache tells the loader where to find the libraries.
-You can do this with:
-
- ldconfig -r /mnt
-
-
-----
-!!4.7. Wrapping it up
-
-When you have finished constructing the root filesystem, unmount it, copy it
-to a file and compress it:
-
- umount /mnt
-dd if=DEVICE bs=1k | gzip -v9 b rootfs.gz
-When this finishes you will have a file rootfs.gz. This
-is your compressed root filesystem. You should check its size to make sure it
-will fit on a diskette; if it doesn't you'll have to go back and remove some
-files. Some suggestions for reducing root filesystem size appear in Section 8.
-
-----
-!!!5. Choosing a kernel
-
-At this point you have a complete compressed root filesystem. The next step
-is to build or select a kernel. In most cases it would be possible to copy
-your current kernel and boot the diskette from that. However, there may be
-cases where you wish to build a separate one.
-
-
-
-One reason is size. If you are building a single boot/root diskette, the
-kernel will be one of the largest files on the diskette so you will have to
-reduce the size of the kernel as much as possible. To reduce kernel size,
-build it with the minumum set of facilities necessary to support the desired
-system. This means leaving out everything you don't need. Networking is a
-good thing to leave out, as well as support for any disk drives and other
-devices which you don't need when running your boot/root system. As stated
-before, your kernel ''must'' have ramdisk and ext2 support
-built into it.
-
-
-
- Having worked out a minimum set of facilities to include in a kernel,
-you then need to work out what to add back in. Probably the most common uses
-for a boot/root diskette system would be to examine and restore a corrupted
-root file system, and to do this you may need kernel support. For example, if
-your backups are all held on tape using Ftape to access your tape drive, then,
-if you lose your current root drive and drives containing Ftape, then you will
-not be able to restore from your backup tapes. You will have to reinstall
-Linux, download and reinstall __ftape__, and then try to read
-your backups.
-
-
-
-The point
here is that, whatever I/O support you have added to your kernel to
-support backups should also be added into your boot/root kernel.
-
-
-
-The procedure for actually building the kernel is described in the
-documentation that comes with the kernel. It is quite easy to follow, so
-start by looking in /usr/src/linux. If you have trouble
-building a kernel, you should probably not attempt to build boot/root
-systems anyway. Remember to compress the kernel with ``__make zImage__''.
-
-----
-!!!6. Putting them together: Making the diskette(s)
-
-At this point you have a kernel and a compressed root filesystem. If you are
-making a boot/root disk, check their sizes to make sure they will both fit on
-one disk. If you are making a two disk boot+root set, check the root
-filesystem to make sure it will fit on a single diskette.
-
-
-
- You should decide whether to use LILO to boot the bootdisk kernel.
-The alternative is to copy the kernel directly to the diskette and boot
-without LILO. The advantage of using LILO is that it enables you to supply
-some parameters to the kernel which may be necessary to initialize your
-hardware (Check the file /etc/lilo.conf on your
-system. If it exists and has a line like
-``append=...'', you probably need this feature). The
-disadvantage of using LILO is that building the bootdisk is more
-complicated and takes slightly more space. You will have to set up a small
-separate filesystem, which we shall call the ''kernel
-filesystem'', where you transfer the kernel and a few other files
-that LILO needs.
-
-
-
- If you are going to use LILO, read on; if you are going to transfer
-the kernel directly, skip ahead to Section 6.2.
-
-----
-!!6.1. Transferring the kernel with LILO
-
-First, make sure you have a recent version of LILO.
-
-
-
-You must create a small configuration file for LILO.
-It should look like this:
-
- boot =/dev/fd0
-install =/boot/boot.b
-map =/boot/map
-read-write
-backup =/dev/null
-compact
-image = KERNEL
-label = Bootdisk
-root =/dev/fd0
-For an explanation of these parameters, see LILO's user documentation. You
-will probably also want to add an append=... line to
-this file from your hard disk's /etc/lilo.conf file.
-
-
-
-Save this file as bdlilo.conf.
-
-
-
- You now have to create a small filesystem, which we shall call a
-''kernel filesystem'', to distinguish it from the root
-filesystem.
-
-
-
-First, figure out how large the filesystem should be. Take the size of your
-kernel in blocks (the size shown by ``__ls -s KERNEL__'') and
-add 50. Fifty blocks is approximately the space needed for inodes plus other
-files. You can calculate this number exactly if you want to, or just use 50.
-If you're creating a two-disk set, you may as well overestimate the space since
-the first disk is only used for the kernel anyway. Call this number
-KERNEL_BLOCKS.
-
-
-
-Put a floppy diskette in the drive (for simplicity we'll assume
-/dev/fd0) and create an ext2 kernel filesystem on it:
-
- mke2fs -N 24 -m 0 /dev/fd0 KERNEL_BLOCKS
-The ``-N 24'' specifies 24 inodes, which is all you should
-need for this filesystem. Next, mount the filesystem, remove the
-lost+found directory, and create dev
-and boot directories for LILO:
-
- mount -o dev /dev/fd0 /mnt
-rm -rf /mnt/lost+found
-mkdir /mnt/{boot,dev}
-
-
-
-Next, create devices /dev/null and
-/dev/fd0. Instead of looking up the device numbers, you
-can just copy them from your hard disk using -R:
-
- cp -R /dev/{null,fd0} /mnt/dev
-LILO needs a copy of its boot loader, boot.b, which
-you can take from your hard disk. It is usually kept in the
-/boot directory.
-
- cp /boot/boot.b /mnt/boot
-Finally, copy in the LILO configuration file you created in the last section,
-along with your kernel. Both can be put in the root directory:
-
- cp bdlilo.conf KERNEL /mnt
-Everything LILO needs is now on the kernel filesystem, so you are ready to run
-it. LILO's -r flag is used for installing the boot loader on some other
-root:
-
- lilo -v -C bdlilo.conf -r /mnt
-LILO should run without error, after which the kernel filesystem
-should look something like this:
-
-total 361
-1 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 176 Jan 10 07:22 bdlilo.conf
-1 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 1024 Jan 10 07:23 boot/
-1 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 1024 Jan 10 07:22 dev/
-358 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 362707 Jan 10 07:23 vmlinuz
-boot:
-total 8
-4 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3708 Jan 10 07:22 boot.b
-4 -rw------- 1 root root 3584 Jan 10 07:23 map
-dev:
-total
-0 brw-r----- 1 root root 2, 0 Jan 10 07:22 fd0
-0 crw-r--r-- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 10 07:22 null
-
-
-
-Do not worry if the file sizes are slightly different from yours.
-
-
-
-Now leave the diskette in the drive and go to Section 6.3.
-
-----
-!!6.2. Transferring the kernel without LILO
-
-If you are ''not'' using LILO, transfer the kernel to the
-bootdisk with __dd__:
-
- % dd if=KERNEL of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k
-353+1 records in
-353+1 records out
-In this example, __dd__ wrote 353 complete records + 1
-partial record, so the kernel occupies the first 354 blocks of the
-diskette. Call this number KERNEL_BLOCKS and
-remember it for use in the next section.
-
-
-
-Finally, set the root device to be the diskette itself, then set the
-root to be loaded read/write:
-
- rdev /dev/fd0 /dev/fd0
-rdev -R /dev/fd0
-Be careful to use a capital -R in the second
-__rdev__ command.
-
-----
-!!6.3. Setting the ramdisk word
-
-
-Inside the kernel image is the ''ramdisk word'' that
-specifies where the root filesystem is to be found, along with other
-options. The word can be accessed and set via the __rdev__
-command, and its contents are interpreted as follows:
-
-
-
-
-
-Bit fieldDescription0-10Offset to start of ramdisk, in 1024 byte blocks11-13unused14Flag indicating that ramdisk is to be loaded15Flag indicating to prompt before loading rootfs
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-If bit 15 is set, on boot-up you will be prompted to place a new floppy
-diskette in the drive. This is necessary for a two-disk boot set.
-
-
-
-There are two cases, depending on whether you are building a single
-boot/root diskette or a double ``boot+root'' diskette set.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
- If you are building a single disk, the compressed root filesystem
-will be placed right after the kernel, so the offset will be the first free
-block (which should be the same as
-KERNEL_BLOCKS). Bit 14 will be set to 1, and bit
-15 will be zero.
-For example, say you're building a single disk and the root filesystem will
-begin at block 253 (decimal). The ramdisk word value should be 253
-(decimal) with bit 14 set to 1 and bit 15 set to . To calculate the value
-you can simply add the decimal values. 253 + (2^14) = 253 + 16384 =
-16637. If you don't quite understand where this number comes from, plug it
-into a scientific calculator and convert it to binary,
-
-
-#
-#
-
-If you are building a two-disk set, the root filesystem will begin at
-block zero of the second disk, so the offset will be zero. Bit 14 will be
-set to 1 and bit 15 will be 1. The decimal value will be
-2^14 + 2^15 = 49152 in this case.
-
-
-#
-
-After carefully calculating the value for the ramdisk word, set it with
-__rdev -r__. Be sure to use the
-''decimal'' value. If you used LILO, the argument to
-__rdev__ here should be the ''mounted kernel
-path'',
-e.g. /mnt/vmlinuz; if you copied the kernel with
-__dd__, instead
-use the floppy device name (''e.g.,'' /dev/fd0).
-
- rdev -r KERNEL_OR_FLOPPY_DRIVE VALUE
-
-
-
-If you used LILO, unmount the diskette now.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Do not believe what the rdev/ramsize manpage says about ramdisk
-size.
-The manpage is obsolete. As of kernel 2.0 or so, the ramdisk word no
-longer determines the ramdisk size; the word is instead interpreted
-according to the table at the beginning of section Section 6.3. For a detailed
-explanation, see the documentation file ramdisk.txt or
-http://www.linuxhq.com/kernel/v2.4/doc/ramdisk.txt.html.
-
-
-----
-!!6.4. Transferring the root filesystem
-
-The last step is to transfer the root filesystem.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
- If the root filesystem will be placed on the
-''same'' disk as the kernel, transfer it using
-__dd__ with the seek option, which
-specifies how many blocks to skip:
-
- dd if=rootfs.gz of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k seek=''KERNEL_BLOCKS''
-
-
-*
-*
-
-If the root filesystem will be placed on a ''second''
-disk, remove the first diskette, put the second diskette in the drive, then
-transfer the root filesystem to it:
-
- dd if=rootfs.gz of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-Congratulations, you are done!
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-You should always test a bootdisk before putting it aside for an emergency.
-If it fails to boot, read on.
-
-----
-!!!7. Troubleshooting, or The Agony of Defeat
-
-When building bootdisks, the first few tries often will not boot. The general
-approach to building a root disk is to assemble components from your existing
-system, and try and get the diskette-based system to the point where it displays
-messages on the console. Once it starts talking to you, the battle is half over
-because you can see what it is complaining about, and you can fix individual
-problems until the system works smoothly. If the system just hangs with no
-explanation, finding the cause can be difficult. The recommended procedure for
-investigating the problem where the system will not talk to you is as follows:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-You may see a message like this:
-
-Kernel panic: VFS: Unable to mount root fs on XX:YY
-This is a common problem and it has only a few causes. First, check the device
-''XX:YY'' against the list of device codes in
-/usr/src/linux/Documentation/devices.txt. If it is
-incorrect, you probably didn't do an __rdev -R__, or you did it
-on the wrong image. If the device code is correct, then check carefully the
-device drivers compiled into your kernel. Make sure it has floppy disk, ramdisk
-and ext2 filesystem support built-in.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-If you see many errors like:
-
-end_request: I/O error, dev 01:00 (ramdisk), sector NNN
-This is an I/O error from the ramdisk driver, usually because the kernel is
-trying to write beyond the end of the device. The ramdisk is too small to hold
-the root filesystem. Check your bootdisk kernel's initialization messages for a
-line like:
-
- Ramdisk driver initialized : 16 ramdisks of 4096K size
-Check this size against the ''uncompressed'' size of
-the root filesystem. If the ramdisks aren't large enough, make them
-larger.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Check that the root disk actually contains the directories you think
-it does. It is easy to copy at the wrong level so that you end up
-with something like /rootdisk/bin instead of
-/bin on your root diskette.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Check that there is a /lib/libc.so with the same link that
-appears in your /lib directory on your hard disk.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Check that any symbolic links in your /dev
-directory in your existing system also exist on your root diskette
-filesystem, where those links are to devices which you have included
-in your root diskette. In particular,
-/dev/console links are essential in many cases.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Check that you have included /dev/tty1, /dev/null, /dev/zero,
-/dev/mem, /dev/ram and /dev/kmem files.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Check your kernel configuration -- support for all resources
-required up to login point must be built in, not modules.
-So ''ramdisk and ext2 support must be built-in''.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Check that your kernel root device and ramdisk settings are correct.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-Once these general aspects have been covered, here are some more
-specific files to check:
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
-Make sure __init__ is included as
-/sbin/init or /bin/init.
-Make sure it is executable.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Run __ldd init__ to check init's libraries. Usually
-this is just libc.so, but check anyway. Make
-sure you included the necessary libraries and loaders.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Make sure you have the right loader for your libraries --
-ld.so for a.out or ld-linux.so
-for ELF.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Check the /etc/inittab on your bootdisk filesystem for
-the calls to __getty__ (or some __getty__-like
-program, such as __agetty__, __mgetty__ or
-__getty_ps__). Double-check these against your hard
-disk inittab. Check the man pages of the program you use
-to make sure these make sense. inittab is possibly the
-trickiest part because its syntax and content depend on the init program used
-and the nature of the system. The only way to tackle it is to read the man
-pages for __init__ and inittab and work
-out exactly what your existing system is doing when it boots. Check to make
-sure /etc/inittab has a system initialisation entry.
-This should contain a command to execute the system initialization script,
-which must exist.
-
-
-#
-#
-
- As with __init__, run __ldd__ on your
-__getty__ to see what it needs, and make sure the necessary
-library files and loaders were included in your root filesystem.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Be sure you have included a shell program (e.g., __bash__ or
-__ash__)
-capable of running all of your rc scripts.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-If you have a /etc/ld.so.cache file on your rescue disk,
-remake it.
-
-
-#
-
-
-
-If __init__ starts, but you get a message like:
-
- Id xxx respawning too fast: disabled for 5 minutes
-it is coming from __init__, usually indicating that
-__getty__ or __login__ is dying as soon as it
-starts up. Check the __getty__ and __login__
-executables and the libraries they depend upon. Make sure the invocations in
-/etc/inittab are correct. If you get strange messages
-from __getty__, it may mean the calling form in
-/etc/inittab is wrong.
-
-
-
- If you get a login prompt, and you enter a valid login name but the
-system prompts you for another login name immediately, the problem may be
-with PAM or NSS. See Section 4.4. The problem may also be
-that you use shadow passwords and didn't copy
-/etc/shadow to your bootdisk.
-
-
-
- If you try to run some executable, such as __df__, which
-is on your rescue disk but you yields a message like: df: not
-found, check two things: (1) Make sure the directory containing the
-binary is in your PATH, and (2) make sure you have libraries (and loaders) the
-program needs.
-
-----
-!!!8. Reducing root filesystem size
-
-One of the main problems with building bootdisks is getting everything to fit
-into one (or even two) diskettes. Even when files are compressed this can be
-very difficult, because Linux system components keep growing. Here are some
-common techniques used to make everything fit.
-
-----
-!!8.1. Increase the diskette density
-
-By default, floppy diskettes are formatted at 1440K, but higher density
-formats are possible. Whether you can boot from higher density
-disks depends mostly on your BIOS.
-fdformat will format disks for
-the following sizes: 1600K, 1680K, 1722K, 1743K, 1760K, 1840K, and 1920K.
-See the __fdformat__ man page and
-/usr/src/linux/Documentation/devices.txt.
-
-
-
- But what diskette densities/geometries will your machine support? Here
-are some (lightly edited) answers from Alain Knaff, the author of fdutils.
-
-
-
-This is more an issue of the BIOS rather than the physical format of the disk.
-If the BIOS decides that any sector number greater than 18 is bad, then
-there is not much we can do. Indeed, short of disassembling the BIOS, trial
-and error seems to be the only way to find out. However, if the BIOS supports
-ED disks (extra density: 36 sectors/track and 2.88MB), there's a chance that
-1722K disks are supported as well.
-
-
-
-Superformatted disks with more than 21 sectors/track are likely not bootable:
-indeed, those use sectors of non-standard sizes (1024 bytes in a sector
-instead of 512, for example), and are likely not bootable. It should however
-be possible to write a special bootsector program to work around this. If I
-remember correctly, the DOS 2m utility has such a beast, as does OS/2's XDF
-utilities.
-
-
-
-Some BIOSes artificially claim that any sector number greater than 18
-must be in error. As 1722K disks use sector numbers up to 21, these
-would not be bootable. The best way to test would be to format a test
-DOS or syslinus disk as 1722K and make it bootable. If you use LILO,
-don't use the option linear (or else LILO would assume that the disk
-is the default 18 sectors/track, and the disk will fail to boot even
-if supported by the BIOS).
-
-----
-!!8.2. Replace common utilities with !BusyBox
-
- Much root filesystem space is consumed by common GNU system utilities
-such as cat, chmod, cp, dd, df, etc. The
-''!BusyBox'' project was designed to provide minimal
-replacements for these common system utilities. !BusyBox supplies one single
-monolithic executable file, /bin/busybox, about 150K, which
-implements the functions of these utilities. You then create symlinks from
-different utilities to this executable; busybox sees how it was called and
-invokes the correct code. !BusyBox even includes a basic shell.
-!BusyBox is available in binary packages for many distributions, and source
-code is available from the !BusyBox
-site.
-
-
-----
-!!8.3. Use an alternate shell
-
- Some of the popular shells for Linux, such as __bash__
-and __tcsh__, are large and require many libraries. If you
-don't use the !BusyBox shell, you should still consider replacing your shell
-anyway. Some light-weight alternatives are __ash__,
-__lsh__, __kiss__ and __smash__,
-which are much smaller and require few (or no) libraries. Most of these
-replacement shells are available from http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/system/shells/. Make sure any shell you use is capable of running
-commands in all the rc files you include on your
-bootdisk.
-
-
-----
-!!8.4. Strip libraries and binaries
-
- Many libraries and binaries are distributed with debugging information.
-Running __file__ on these files will tell you ``not
-stripped'' if so.
-When copying binaries to
-your root filesystem, it is good practice to use:
- objcopy --strip-all FROM TO
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-When copying libraries, be sure to use strip-debug instead of
-strip-all.
-
-
-
-----
-!!8.5. Move files to a utility disk
-
- If some of your binaries are not needed immediately to boot or login,
-you can move them to a utility disk. See Section 9.2 for
-details. You may also consider moving modules to a utility disk as well.
-
-
-----
-!!!9. Miscellaneous topics
-!!9.1. Non-ramdisk root filesystems
-
-Section 4 gave instructions for building a compressed root
-filesystem which is loaded to ramdisk when the system boots. This method
-has many advantages so it is commonly used. However, some systems with
-little memory cannot afford the RAM needed for this, and they must use root
-filesystems mounted directly from the diskette.
-
-
-
-Such filesystems are actually easier to build than compressed root filesystems
-because they can be built on a diskette rather than on some other device, and
-they do not have to be compressed. We will outline the procedure as it
-differs from the instructions above. If you choose to do this, keep in mind
-that you will have ''much less space'' available.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
-Calculate how much space you will have available for root files.
-If you are building a single boot/root disk, you must fit all blocks for the
-kernel plus all blocks for the root filesystem on the one disk.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Using __mke2fs__, create a root filesystem on a diskette of the
-appropriate size.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Populate the filesystem as described above.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-When done, unmount the filesystem and transfer it to a disk file
-but ''do not compress it''.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Transfer the kernel to a floppy diskette, as described above. When
-calculating the ramdisk word, ''set bit 14 to zero'', to indicate that the
-root filesystem is not to be loaded to ramdisk. Run the __rdev__'s as
-described.
-
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Transfer the root filesystem as before.
-
-
-#
-
-
-
- There are several shortcuts you can take. If you are building a
-two-disk set, you can build the complete root filesystem directly on the
-second disk and you need not transfer it to a hard disk file and then back.
-Also, if you are building a single boot/root disk and using LILO, you can
-build a ''single'' filesystem on the entire disk,
-containing the kernel, LILO files and root files, and simply run LILO as
-the last step.
-
-----
-!!9.2. Building a utility disk
-
-Building a utility disk is relatively easy -- simply create a filesystem
-on a formatted disk and copy files to it. To use it with a bootdisk,
-mount it manually after the system is booted.
-
-
-
-In the instructions above, we mentioned that the utility disk could be
-mounted as /usr. In this case, binaries could be placed into a
-/bin directory on your utility disk, so that placing
-/usr/bin in your path will access them. Additional libraries
-needed by the binaries are placed in /lib on the utility disk.
-
-
-
-There are several important points to keep in mind when designing a utility
-disk:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
-Do not place critical system binaries or libraries onto the utility
-disk, since it will not be mountable until after the system has booted.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-You cannot access a floppy diskette and a floppy tape drive
-simultaneously. This means that if you have a floppy tape drive, you will not
-be able to access it while your utility disk is mounted.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Access to files on the utility disk will be slow.
-
-
-#
-
-
-
-Appendix D shows a sample of files on a utility disk.
-Here are some ideas for files you may find useful: programs for examining
-and manipulating disks (__format, fdisk__) and filesystems
-(__mke2fs, fsck, debugfs, isofs.o__), a lightweight text
-editor (__elvis, jove__), compression and archive utilities
-(__gzip, bzip, tar, cpio, afio__), tape utilities
-(__mt, ftmt, tob, taper__), communications utilities
-(__ppp.o, slip.o, minicom__) and utilities for devices
-(__setserial, mknod__).
-
-----
-!!!10. How the pros do it
-
-You may notice that the bootdisks used by major distributions such as
-Slackware, !RedHat or Debian seem more sophisticated than what is described
-in this document. Professional distribution bootdisks are based on the
-same principles outlined here, but employ various tricks because their
-bootdisks have additional requirements. First, they must be able to work
-with a wide variety of hardware, so they must be able to interact with the
-user and load various device drivers. Second, they must be prepared to
-work with many different installation options, with varying degrees of
-automation. Finally, distribution bootdisks usually combine installation
-and rescue capabilities.
-
-
-
-Some bootdisks use a feature called ''initrd''
-(''initial ramdisk''). This feature was introduced
-around 2..x and allows a kernel to boot in two phases. When the
-kernel first boots, it loads an initial ramdisk image from the boot
-disk. This initial ramdisk is a root filesystem containing a program
-that runs before the real root fs is loaded. This program usually
-inspects the environment and/or asks the user to select various boot
-options, such as the device from which to load the real rootdisk. It
-typically loads additional modules not built in to the kernel. When
-this initial program exits, the kernel loads the real root image and
-booting continues normally. For further information on
-__initrd__, see your local file /usr/src/linux/Documentation/initrd.txt
-and ftp://elserv.ffm.fgan.de/pub/linux/loadlin-1.6/initrd-example.tgz
-
-
-
-The following are summaries of how each distribution's installation
-disks seem to work, based on inspecting their filesystems and/or
-source code. We do not guarantee that this information is completely
-accurate, or that they have not changed since the versions noted.
-
-
-
- Slackware (v.3.1) uses a straightforward LILO boot similar to what
-is described in Section 6.1. The
-Slackware bootdisk prints a bootup message ("Welcome to the
-Slackware Linux bootkernel disk!") using LILO's
-message parameter. This instructs the user to enter a
-boot parameter line if necessary. After booting, a root filesystem is
-loaded from a second disk. The user invokes a __setup__
-script which starts the installation. Instead of using a modular kernel,
-Slackware provides many different kernels and depends upon the user to
-select the one matching his or her hardware requirements.
-
-
-
- !RedHat (v.4.) also uses a LILO boot. It loads a compressed ramdisk
-on the first disk, which runs a custom __init__ program.
-This program queries for drivers then loads additional files from a
-supplemental disk if necessary.
-
-
-
- Debian (v.1.3) is probably the most sophisticated of the
-installation disk sets. It uses the SYSLINUX loader to arrange various
-load options, then uses an initrd image to guide the
-user through installation. It appears to use both a customized
-__init__ and a customized shell.
-
-----
-!!!11. Creating bootable CD-ROMs
-
-
-
-
-
-
-This section was contributed by Rizwan Mohammed Darwe
-(rizwan AT clovertechnologies dot com)
-
-
-
-
-This section assumes that you are familiar with the process and workings of
-writing CDs in linux. Consider this to be a quick reference to include the
-ability to boot the CD which you will burn. The CD-Writing-HOWTO should give you
-an in-depth reference.
-
-----
-!!11.1. What is El Torito?
-
-For the x86 platform, many BIOS's have begun to support bootable CDs.
-The patches for mkisofs is based on the standard called "El Torito".
-Simply put, El Torito is a specification that says how a cdrom should
-be formatted such that you can directly boot from it.
-
-
-
- The "El Torito" spec says that ''any'' cdrom drive
-should work (SCSI or EIDE) as long as the BIOS supports El Torito. So far
-this has only been tested with EIDE drives because none of the SCSI
-controllers that has been tested so far appears to support El Torito. The
-motherboard definately has to support El Torito. How do you know if your
-motherboard supports "El Torito"? Well, the ones that support it let you
-choose booting from hard disk, Floppy, Network or CDROM.
-
-----
-!!11.2. How it Works
-
- The El Torito standard works by making the CD drive appear, through
-BIOS calls, to be a normal floppy drive. This way you simply put any floppy
-size image (exactly 1440k for a 1.44 meg floppy) somewhere in the ISO
-filesystem. In the headers of the ISO fs you place a pointer to this image.
-The BIOS will then grab this image from the CD and for all purposes it acts as
-if it were booting from the floppy drive. This allows a working LILO boot
-disk, for example, to simply be used as is.
-
-
-
-Roughly speaking, the first 1.44 (or 2.88 if supported) Mbytes of the
-CD-ROM contains a floppy-disk image supplied by you. This image is treated
-like a floppy by the BIOS and booted from. (As a consequence, while booting
-from this virtual floppy, your original drive A:
-(/dev/fd0) may not be accessible, but you can try with
-/dev/fd1).
-
-----
-!!11.3. How to make it work
-
-First create a file, say "boot.img", which is an exact image of the bootable
-floppy-disk which you want to boot via the CD-ROM. This must be an 1.44 MB
-bootable floppy-disk. The command below will do this
-
- dd if=/dev/fd0 of=boot.img bs=10k count=144
-assuming the floppy is in the A: drive.
-
-
-
-Place this image somewhere in the hierarchy which will be the source
-for the iso9660 filesystem. It is a good idea to put all boot related
-files in their own directory ("boot/" under the root of the iso9660 fs,
-for example).
-
-
-
-One caveat -- Your boot floppy ''must'' load any initial
-ramdisk via LILO, not the kernel ramdisk driver! This is because once the
-linux kernel starts up, the BIOS emulation of the CD as a floppy disk is
-circumvented and will fail. LILO will load the initial ramdisk using BIOS
-disk calls, so the emulation works as designed.
-
-
-
-
-The El Torito specification requires a "boot catalog" to be created as
-well. This is a 2048 byte file which is of no interest except it is required.
-The patchwork done by the author of mkisofs will cause it to automatically
-create the boot catalog, but you must specify where the boot catalog will go
-in the iso9660 filesystem. Usually it is a good idea to put it in the same
-place as the boot image, and a name like boot.catalog
-seems appropriate.
-
-
-
-So we have our boot image in the file boot.img,
-and we are going to put it in the directory boot/ under the root of the iso9660 filesystem.
-We will have the boot catalog go in the same directory with the name
-boot.catalog. The command to create the iso9660 fs in
-the file bootcd.iso is then:
-
-mkisofs -r -b boot/boot.img -c boot/boot.catalog -o bootcd.iso .
-The -b option specifies the boot image to be used (note the
-path is relative to the root of the iso9660 disk), and the -c
-option is for the boot catalog file. The -r option will make
-approptiate file ownerships and modes (see the mkisofs
-manpage). The "." in the end says to take the source from the current
-directory.
-
-
-
-Now burn the CD with the usual cdrecord command and it is ready to boot.
-
-----
-!!11.4. Create Win9x Bootable CD-Roms
-
-The first step is to get hold of the bootable image used by the source
-CD. But you cannot simply mount the CD under linux and dd the first 1440k to
-a floppy disk or to a file like boot.img. Instead you
-simply boot with the source CD-ROM.
-
-
-
-When you boot the Win98 CD you are dropped to A: prompt which is the
-actual ramdisk. And D: or Z: is where all the installables are residing. By
-using the diskcopy command of dos copy the A: image into the actual floppy
-drive which is now B: The command below will do this.
-
-diskcopy A: B:
-It works just like dd. You can try booting from this newly created disk to
-test if the booting process is similar to that of the source CD. Then the
-usual dd of this floppy to a file like boot.img and then rest is as usual.
-
-----
-!!!12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list; Q: ''I boot from my boot/root disks and nothing happens. What do I
-do?''; Q: ''How does the Slackware/Debian/!RedHat bootdisk work?''; Q: ''How do I use higher-density (b 1440K) diskettes? How do I figure out
-which densities will work with my diskette drive?''; Q: ''How do I increase the size of my ramdisks?''; Q: ''How do I make bootable CD-ROMs? ''; Q: ''How do I make bootable LS-120 disks?''; Q: ''How can I make a boot disk with a XYZ driver?''; Q: ''How do I update my root diskette with new files?''; Q: ''How do I remove LILO so that I can use DOS to boot again?''; Q: ''How can I boot if I've lost my kernel ''and''
-my boot disk?''; Q: ''How can I make extra copies of boot/root diskettes?''; Q: ''How can I boot without typing in "ahaxxxx=nn,nn,nn" every time?''; Q: ''At boot time, I get error "A: cannot execute
-B". Why?''; Q: ''My kernel has ramdisk support, but initializes ramdisks of 0K. Why?''
-
-__Q: __''I boot from my boot/root disks and nothing happens. What do I
-do?''
-
-
-
-__A: __See Section 7, above.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How does the Slackware/Debian/!RedHat bootdisk work?''
-
-
-
-__A: __See Section 10, above.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How do I use higher-density (b 1440K) diskettes? How do I figure out
-which densities will work with my diskette drive?''
-
-
-
-__A: __See Section Section 8, above, for the comments by Alain Knaff
-on this subject. His is the most authoritative answer I know of.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How do I increase the size of my ramdisks?''
-
-
-
-__A: __This probably should be explained better in the text, but I'll put an answer
-here for the time being.
-
-
-
-First, ''do not'' attempt to use the rdev
-or ramsize commands to do this, no matter what their
-documentation says. The ramdisk word no longer determines the size of
-ramdisks.
-
-
-
-Second, keep in mind that ramdisks are actually dynamic; when you set a
-ramdisk size you aren't allocating any memory, you're just setting the limit
-of how large it can grow. Don't be afraid to set these fairly large (eg, 8 or
-even 16 meg). The RAM space is not actually consumed until you need it.
-You can set these limits in one of several ways.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-#
-
-Use the ramdisk_size=NNN command line
-parameter. You can either enter this manually or use a command like
-append="ramdisk_size=NNN" with LILO.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-If you're using LILO, you can use a kernel option like
-ramdisk=8192K in the lilo.conf file.
-
-
-#
-#
-
-Change the kernel configuration option
-CONFIG_BLK_DEV_RAM_SIZE and recompile your kernel.
-
-
-#
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How do I make bootable CD-ROMs? ''
-
-
-
-__A: __See section Section 11.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How do I make bootable LS-120 disks?''
-
-
-
-__A: __Since I don't have an LS-120 drive, the following information is summarized
-from information
-provided by Dave Cinege from the Linux Router Project.
-
-
-
-The LS-120 is an IDE floppy drive. It is compatible with both standard 3.5"
-disks and the new 120MB disks. As of Linux v2..31 there is full support. To
-be able to boot from these you must have a BIOS that specifically allows the
-LS-120 to be treated as drive 0 (whereas IDE devices normally start at 80).
-If you do not have BIOS support, you can purchase a small IDE FloppyMAX card
-from Promise Technologies to overcome this deficiency.
-
-
-
-The kernel boot loader does not like the LS-120, and instantly dies. Also 2m
-disks do not like it and will not boot. 1.44MB through 1.74MB disks will work
-fine. SYSLINUX works with the 120MB disks as of v1.32. You would better off
-partitioning the disk and using ext2 or minix, instead of SYSLINUX unless you
-need MS-DOS compatibility.
-
-
-
-LILO does work fine with 120MB disks. Here is a sample lilo.conf:
-
- boot=/dev/hda
-compact
-disk=/dev/hda bios=
-install=/floppy/boot.b
-map=/floppy/map
-image=/floppy/linux
-label=Linux
-append="load_ramdisk=1"
-initrd=/floppy/root.bin
-ramdisk=8192
-The line "disk=/dev/hda bios=" is what does the trick to make it boot the
-LS-120.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How can I make a boot disk with a XYZ driver?''
-
-
-
-__A: __The easiest way is to obtain a Slackware kernel from your nearest Slackware
-mirror site. Slackware kernels are generic kernels which atttempt to
-include drivers for as many devices as possible, so if you have a SCSI or
-IDE controller, chances are that a driver for it is included in the
-Slackware kernel.
-
-
-
-Go to the a1 directory and select either IDE or SCSI
-kernel depending on the type of controller you have. Check the xxxxkern.cfg
-file for the selected kernel to see the drivers which have been included in
-that kernel. If the device you want is in that list, then the corresponding
-kernel should boot your computer. Download the xxxxkern.tgz file and copy
-it to your boot diskette as described above in the section on making boot
-disks.
-
-
-
- You must then check the root device in the kernel, using the command
-__rdev zImage__. If this is not the same as the root device
-you want, use __rdev__ to change it. For example, the kernel I
-tried was set to /dev/sda2, but my root SCSI partition is
-/dev/sda8. To use a root diskette, you would have to use
-the command __rdev zImage /dev/fd0__.
-
-
-
-If you want to know how to set up a Slackware root disk as well, that's
-outside the scope of this HOWTO, so I suggest you check the Linux Install
-Guide or get the Slackware distribution. See the section in this HOWTO titled
-``References''.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How do I update my root diskette with new files?''
-
-
-
-__A: __
-The easiest way is to copy the filesystem from the rootdisk back to the
-DEVICE you used (from Section 4.2, above).
-Then mount the filesystem and make the changes. You have to remember where
-your root filesystem started and how many blocks it occupied:
-
- dd if=/dev/fd0 bs=1k skip=ROOTBEGIN count=BLOCKS | gunzip b DEVICE
-mount -t ext2 DEVICE /mnt
-After making the changes, proceed as before (in Section 4.7) and transfer the root filesystem back to the disk.
-You should not have to re-transfer the kernel or re-compute the ramdisk word
-if you do not change the starting position of the new root filesystem.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How do I remove LILO so that I can use DOS to boot again?''
-
-
-
-__A: __This is not really a Bootdisk topic, but it is asked often. Within Linux, you
-can run:
-
- /sbin/lilo -u
-
-
-
- You can also use the __dd__ command to copy the
-backup saved by LILO to the boot sector. Refer to the LILO documentation
-if you wish to do this.
-
-
-
-Within DOS and Windows you can use the DOS command:
-
- FDISK /MBR
-MBR stands for Master Boot Record. This command replaces the boot sector
-with a clean DOS one, without affecting the partition table. Some purists
-disagree with this, but even the author of LILO, Werner Almesberger,
-suggests it. It is easy, and it works.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How can I boot if I've lost my kernel ''and''
-my boot disk?''
-
-
-
-__A: __If you don't have a boot disk standing by, probably the easiest method is
-to obtain a Slackware kernel for your disk controller type (IDE or SCSI) as
-described above for ``How do I make a boot disk with a XXX driver?''. You
-can then boot your computer using this kernel, then repair whatever damage
-there is.
-
-
-
- The kernel you get may not have the root device set to the disk type
-and partition you want. For example, Slackware's generic SCSI kernel has
-the root device set to /dev/sda2, whereas my root
-Linux partition happens to be /dev/sda8. In this case
-the root device in the kernel will have to be changed.
-
-
-
-You can still change the root device and ramdisk settings in the kernel
-even if all you have is a kernel, and some other operating system,
-such as DOS.
-
-
-
- __rdev__ changes kernel settings by changing the
-values at fixed offsets in the kernel file, so you can do the same if you
-have a hex editor available on whatever systems you do still have running
--- for example, Norton Utilities Disk Editor under DOS. You then need to
-check and if necessary change the values in the kernel at the following
-offsets:
-
-HEX DEC DESCRIPTION
-0x01F8 504 Low byte of RAMDISK word
-0x01F9 505 High byte of RAMDISK word
-0x01FC 508 Root minor device number - see below
-0X01FD 509 Root major device number - see below
-
-
-
-The interpretation of the ramdisk word was described in Section 6.3, above.
-
-
-
-The major and minor device numbers must be set to the device you want to mount
-your root filesystem on. Some useful values to select from are:
-
-DEVICE MAJOR MINOR
-/dev/fd0 2 0 1st floppy drive
-/dev/hda1 3 1 partition 1 on 1st IDE drive
-/dev/sda1 8 1 partition 1 on 1st SCSI drive
-/dev/sda8 8 8 partition 8 on 1st SCSI drive
-Once you have set these values then you can write the file to a diskette
-using either Norton Utilities Disk Editor, or a program called
-__rawrite.exe__. This program is included in all
-distributions. It is a DOS program which writes a file to the ``raw''
-disk, starting at the boot sector, instead of writing it to the file
-system. If you use Norton Utilities you must write the file to a physical
-disk starting at the beginning of the disk.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How can I make extra copies of boot/root diskettes?''
-
-
-
-__A: __Because magnetic media may deteriorate over time, you should keep several
-copies of your rescue disk, in case the original is unreadable.
-
-
-
-
-The easiest way of making copies of any diskettes, including
-bootable and utility diskettes, is to use the __dd__ command
-to copy the contents of the original diskette to a file on your hard drive,
-and then use the same command to copy the file back to a new diskette.
-Note that you do not need to, and should not, mount the diskettes, because
-__dd__ uses the raw device interface.
-
-
-
-To copy the original, enter the command:
-
- dd if=DEVICENAME of=FILENAME
-where DEVICENAME is the device name of the diskette drive and
-FILENAME is the name of the (hard-disk) output file. Omitting the
-count parameter causes __dd__ to copy the
-whole diskette (2880 blocks if high-density).
-
-
-
-To copy the resulting file back to a new diskette, insert the new
-diskette and enter the reverse command:
-
- dd if=FILENAME of=DEVICENAME
-
-
-
-Note that the above discussion assumes that you have only one diskette
-drive. If you have two of the same type, you can copy diskettes using a
-command like:
-
- dd if=/dev/fd0 of=/dev/fd1
-
-
-
-__Q: __''How can I boot without typing in "ahaxxxx=nn,nn,nn" every time?''
-
-
-
-__A: __
-Where a disk device cannot be autodetected it is necessary to supply the
-kernel with a command device parameter string, such as:
-
- aha152x=0x340,11,3,1
-This parameter string can be supplied in several ways using LILO:
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-By entering it on the command line every time the system is booted via
-LILO. This is boring, though.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-By using LILO's lock keyword to make it store the
-command line as the default command line, so that LILO will use the same
-options every time it boots.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-By using the append= statement in the LILO config file.
-Note that the parameter string must be enclosed in quotes.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
- For example, a sample command line using the above parameter string
-would be:
-
- zImage aha152x=0x340,11,3,1 root=/dev/sda1 lock
-
-
-
- This would pass the device parameter string through, and also ask
-the kernel to set the root device to /dev/sda1 and
-save the whole command line and reuse it for all future boots.
-
-
-
-A sample APPEND statement is:
-
- APPEND = "aha152x=0x340,11,3,1"
-
-
-
- Note that the parameter string must ''not'' be
-enclosed in quotes on the command line, but it ''must'' be
-enclosed in quotes in the APPEND statement.
-
-
-
- Note also that for the parameter string to be acted on, the kernel
-must contain the driver for that disk type. If it does not, then there is
-nothing listening for the parameter string, and you will have to rebuild
-the kernel to include the required driver. For details on rebuilding the
-kernel, go to /usr/src/linux and read the README, and
-read the Linux FAQ and Installation HOWTO. Alternatively you could obtain
-a generic kernel for the disk type and install that.
-
-
-
-Readers are strongly urged to read the LILO documentation before
-experimenting with LILO installation. Incautious use of the
-BOOT statement can damage partitions.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''At boot time, I get error "A: cannot execute
-B". Why?''
-
-
-
-__A: __
-There are several cases of program names being hardcoded in various utilities.
-These cases do not occur everywhere, but they may explain why an executable
-apparently cannot be found on your system even though you can see that it is
-there. You can find out if a given program has the name of another hardcoded
-by using the __strings__ command and piping the output
-through __grep__.
-
-
-
-Known examples of hardcoding are:
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-__shutdown__ in some versions has
-/etc/reboot hardcoded, so __reboot__
-must be placed in the /etc directory.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-__init__ has caused problems for at least one person, with the
-kernel being unable to find __init__.
-
-
-*
-
-
-
- To fix these problems, either move the programs to the correct
-directory, or change configuration files
-(e.g. inittab) to point to the correct directory. If
-in doubt, put programs in the same directories as they are on your hard
-disk, and use the same inittab and
-/etc/rc.d files as they appear on your hard disk.
-
-
-
-__Q: __''My kernel has ramdisk support, but initializes ramdisks of 0K. Why?''
-
-
-
-__A: __Where this occurs, a kernel message like this will appear as the kernel is
-booting:
-
- Ramdisk driver initialized : 16 ramdisks of 0K size
-
-
-
-This is probably because the size has been set to 0 by kernel parameters at
-boot time. This could possibly be because of an overlooked LILO configuration
-file parameter:
-
- ramdisk=
-
-
-
-This was included in sample LILO configuration files in some older
-distributions, and was put there to override any previous kernel setting. If
-you have such a line, remove it.
-
-
-
-Note that if you attempt to use a ramdisk of 0 size, the
-behaviour can be unpredictable, and can result in kernel panics.
-
-----
-!!!A. Resources and pointers
-
-When retrieving a package, always get the latest version unless you have
-good reasons for not doing so.
-
-----
-!!!A.1. Pre-made Bootdisks
-
-These are sources for distribution bootdisks. ''Please use one of
-the mirror sites to reduce the load on these machines.''
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
- Slackware bootdisks,
-rootdisks
-and Slackware mirror sites
-
-
-*
-*
-
- !RedHat bootdisks and Red Hat mirror sites
-
-
-*
-*
-
- Debian bootdisks and Debian mirror sites
-
-
-*
-*
-
-Mandrake
-downloads
-
-
-*
-
-
-
-In addition to the distribution bootdisks, the following rescue disk
-images are available. Unless otherwise specified, these are available in
-the directory
-http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/system/recovery/!INDEX.html
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-RIP is a boot/rescue system which comes in several
-versions: one that fits on a 1.44M floppy diskette and one that fits on a
-CD-ROM. It has large file support and many utility programs for disk
-maintenance and rescue. It has support for ext2, ext3, iso9660, msdos, ntfs,
-reiserfs, ufs and vfat. RIP is available from
-http://www.tux.org/pub/people/kent-robotti/looplinux/rip/index.html
-
-
-*
-*
-
-tomsrtbt, by Tom Oehser, is a single-disk boot/root disk
-based on kernel 2., with a large set of features and support programs. It
-supports IDE, SCSI, tape, network adaptors, PCMCIA and more. About 100
-utility programs and tools are included for fixing and restoring disks.
-The package also includes scripts for disassembling and reconstructing the
-images so that new material can be added if necessary.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-rescue02, by John Comyns, is a rescue disk based on kernel
-1.3.84, with support for IDE and Adaptec 1542 and NCR53C7,8xx. It uses ELF
-binaries but it has enough commands so that it can be used on any system.
-There are modules that can be loaded after booting for all other SCSI
-cards. It probably won't work on systems with 4 mb of ram since it uses a
-3 mb ram disk.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-resque_disk-2..22, by Sergei Viznyuk, is a
-full-featured boot/root disk based on kernel 2..22 with built-in
-support for IDE, many difference SCSI controllers, and ELF/AOUT. Also
-includes many modules and useful utilities for repairing and restoring
-a hard disk.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-cramdisk images, based on the 2..23 kernel,
-available for 4 meg and 8 meg machines. They include math emulation and
-networking (PPP and dialin script, NE2000, 3C509), or support for the
-parallel port ZIP drive. These diskette images will boot on a 386 with 4MB
-RAM. MSDOS support is included so you can download from the net to a DOS
-partition.
-
-
-*
-
-----
-!!!A.2. Rescue packages
-
- Several packages for creating rescue disks are available on
-www.ibiblio.org. With these packages you specify a set of files for inclusion
-and the software automates (to varying degrees) the creation of a bootdisk.
-See http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/system/recovery/!INDEX.html
-for more information. ''Check the file dates carefully''.
-Some of these packages have not been updated in several years and will not
-support the creation of a compressed root filesystem loaded into ramdisk. To
-the best of our knowledge, Yard is the only
-package that will.
-
-----
-!!!A.3. LILO -- the Linux loader
-
-Written by Werner Almesberger. Excellent boot loader, and the documentation
-includes information on the boot sector contents and the early stages of the
-boot process.
-
-
-
-Ftp from ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/lilo/. It is also
-available on Metalab and mirrors.
-
-----
-!!!A.4. Ramdisk usage
-
-An excellent description of the how the ramdisk code works may be found
-with the documentation supplied with the Linux kernel. See
-/usr/src/linux/Documentation/ramdisk.txt. It is
-written by Paul Gortmaker and includes a section on creating a compressed
-ramdisk.
-
-----
-!!!A.5. The Linux boot process
-
-For more detail on the Linux boot process, here are some pointers:
-
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-The ''Linux
-System Administrators' Guide'' has a section on booting.
-
-
-*
-*
-
-The LILO ``Technical overview'' has the definitive technical, low-level
-description of the boot process, up to where the kernel is started.
-
-
-*
-*
-
- The source code is the ultimate guide. Below are some kernel
-files related to the boot process. If you have the Linux kernel source code,
-you can find these under /usr/src/linux on your machine;
-alternatively, Shigio Yamaguchi (shigio at tamacom.com) has a very nice hypertext kernel
-browser for reading kernel source files. Here are some relevant files
-to look at:
-
-
-
-
-; arch/i386/boot/bootsect.S and
-setup.S:
-
-Contain assembly code for the bootsector itself.
-
-; arch/i386/boot/compressed/misc.c:
-
-Contains code for uncompressing the kernel.
-
-; arch/i386/kernel/:
-
-Directory containing kernel initialization code.
-setup.c defines the ramdisk word.
-
-; drivers/block/rd.c:
-
-Contains the ramdisk driver. The procedures
-__rd_load__ and __rd_load_image__ load blocks from a device into a
-ramdisk. The procedure
-__identify_ramdisk_image__ determines what
-kind of filesystem is found and whether it is compressed.
-
-
-
-
-*
-
-----
-!!!B. LILO boot error codes
-
-Questions about these codes are asked so often on Usenet that we include
-them here as a public service. This summary is excerpted from Werner
-Almsberger's LILO User Documentation.
-
-
-
- When LILO loads itself, it displays the word
-LILO. Each letter is printed before or after performing
-some specific action. If LILO fails at some point, the letters printed so
-far can be used to identify the problem.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-!OutputProblem(nothing) No part of LILO has been loaded. LILO either isn't installed or
-the partition on which its boot sector is located isn't active.
-L The first stage boot loader has been loaded and started, but it
-can't load the second stage boot loader. The two-digit error
-codes indicate the type of problem. (See also section ``Disk error
-codes''.) This condition usually indicates a media failure or a
-geometry mismatch (e.g. bad disk parameters).
-LI The first stage boot loader was able to load the second stage boot
-loader, but has failed to execute it. This can either be caused by
-a geometry mismatch or by moving /boot/boot.b
-
-without running the map installer.
-LIL The second stage boot loader has been started, but it can't load
-the descriptor table from the map file. This is typically caused
-by a media failure or by a geometry mismatch.
-LIL? The second stage boot loader has been loaded at an incorrect
-address. This is typically caused by a subtle geometry mismatch or
-by moving /boot/boot.b without running the
-map installer.
-LIL- The descriptor table is corrupt. This can either be caused by a
-geometry mismatch or by moving /boot/map without running the map
-installer.
-LILO All parts of LILO have been successfully loaded.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-If the BIOS signals an error when LILO is trying to load a boot image, the
-respective error code is displayed. These codes range from
-0x00 through 0xbb. See the LILO User
-Guide for an explanation of these.
-
-----
-!!!C. Sample root filesystem listings
-
-
-/:
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 bin
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 4096 Nov 1 15:39 dev
-drwx--x--x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 etc
-drwx--x--x 4 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 lib
-drwx--x--x 5 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 mnt
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 proc
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 root
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 sbin
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 tmp
-drwx--x--x 7 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 usr
-drwx--x--x 5 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 var
-/bin:
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 62660 Nov 1 15:39 ash
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 9032 Nov 1 15:39 cat
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 10276 Nov 1 15:39 chmod
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 9592 Nov 1 15:39 chown
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 23124 Nov 1 15:39 cp
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 23028 Nov 1 15:39 date
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 14052 Nov 1 15:39 dd
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 14144 Nov 1 15:39 df
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 69444 Nov 1 15:39 egrep
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 395 Nov 1 15:39 false
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 69444 Nov 1 15:39 fgrep
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 69444 Nov 1 15:39 grep
--rwx--x--x 3 root root 45436 Nov 1 15:39 gunzip
--rwx--x--x 3 root root 45436 Nov 1 15:39 gzip
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 8008 Nov 1 15:39 hostname
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 12736 Nov 1 15:39 ln
--rws--x--x 1 root root 15284 Nov 1 15:39 login
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 29308 Nov 1 15:39 ls
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 8268 Nov 1 15:39 mkdir
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 8920 Nov 1 15:39 mknod
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 24836 Nov 1 15:39 more
--rws--x--x 1 root root 37640 Nov 1 15:39 mount
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 12240 Nov 1 15:39 mt
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 12932 Nov 1 15:39 mv
--r-x--x--x 1 root root 12324 Nov 1 15:39 ps
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 5388 Nov 1 15:39 pwd
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 10092 Nov 1 15:39 rm
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 3 Nov 1 15:39 sh -b ash
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 25296 Nov 1 15:39 stty
--rws--x--x 1 root root 12648 Nov 1 15:39 su
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 4444 Nov 1 15:39 sync
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 19712 Nov 1 15:39 touch
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 395 Nov 1 15:39 true
--rws--x--x 1 root root 19084 Nov 1 15:39 umount
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 5368 Nov 1 15:39 uname
--rwx--x--x 3 root root 45436 Nov 1 15:39 zcat
-/dev:
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 6 Nov 1 15:39 cdrom -b cdu31a
-brw-rw-r-- 1 root root 15, 0 May 5 1998 cdu31a
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 0 Nov 1 15:29 console
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root uucp 5, 64 Sep 9 19:46 cua0
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root uucp 5, 65 May 5 1998 cua1
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root uucp 5, 66 May 5 1998 cua2
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root uucp 5, 67 May 5 1998 cua3
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 0 Aug 8 13:54 fd0
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 36 Aug 8 13:54 fd0CompaQ
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 84 Aug 8 13:55 fd0D1040
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 88 Aug 8 13:55 fd0D1120
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 12 Aug 8 13:54 fd0D360
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 16 Aug 8 13:54 fd0D720
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 120 Aug 8 13:55 fd0D800
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 32 Aug 8 13:54 fd0E2880
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 104 Aug 8 13:55 fd0E3200
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 108 Aug 8 13:55 fd0E3520
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 112 Aug 8 13:55 fd0E3840
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 28 Aug 8 13:54 fd0H1440
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 124 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1600
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 44 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1680
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 60 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1722
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 76 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1743
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 96 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1760
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 116 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1840
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 100 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1920
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 7 Nov 1 15:39 fd0H360 -b fd0D360
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 7 Nov 1 15:39 fd0H720 -b fd0D720
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 52 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H820
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 68 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H830
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 4 Aug 8 13:54 fd0d360
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 8 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h1200
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 40 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h1440
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 56 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h1476
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 72 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h1494
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 92 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h1600
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 20 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h360
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 48 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h410
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 64 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h420
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 24 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h720
-brw-rw---- 1 root floppy 2, 80 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h880
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 0 May 5 1998 hda
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 1 May 5 1998 hda1
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 2 May 5 1998 hda2
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 3 May 5 1998 hda3
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 4 May 5 1998 hda4
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 5 May 5 1998 hda5
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 6 May 5 1998 hda6
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 64 May 5 1998 hdb
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 65 May 5 1998 hdb1
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 66 May 5 1998 hdb2
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 67 May 5 1998 hdb3
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 68 May 5 1998 hdb4
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 69 May 5 1998 hdb5
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 70 May 5 1998 hdb6
-crw-r----- 1 root kmem 1, 2 May 5 1998 kmem
-crw-r----- 1 root kmem 1, 1 May 5 1998 mem
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 12 Nov 1 15:39 modem -b ttyS1
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 12 Nov 1 15:39 mouse -b psaux
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 May 5 1998 null
-crwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10, 1 Oct 5 20:22 psaux
-brw-r----- 1 root disk 1, 1 May 5 1998 ram
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 0 May 5 1998 ram0
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 1 May 5 1998 ram1
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 2 May 5 1998 ram2
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 3 May 5 1998 ram3
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 4 May 5 1998 ram4
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 5 May 5 1998 ram5
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 6 May 5 1998 ram6
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 7 May 5 1998 ram7
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 8 May 5 1998 ram8
-brw-rw---- 1 root disk 1, 9 May 5 1998 ram9
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Nov 1 15:39 ramdisk -b ram0
-''*** I have only included devices for the IDE partitions I use.
-*** If you use SCSI, then use the /dev/sdXX devices instead.''
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 0 May 5 1998 tty0
-crw-w----- 1 root tty 4, 1 Nov 1 15:39 tty1
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 2 Nov 1 15:29 tty2
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 3 Nov 1 15:29 tty3
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 4 Nov 1 15:29 tty4
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 5 Nov 1 15:29 tty5
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 6 Nov 1 15:29 tty6
-crw------- 1 root root 4, 7 May 5 1998 tty7
-crw------- 1 root tty 4, 8 May 5 1998 tty8
-crw------- 1 root tty 4, 9 May 8 12:57 tty9
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 4, 65 Nov 1 12:17 ttyS1
-crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 5 May 5 1998 zero
-/etc:
--rw------- 1 root root 164 Nov 1 15:39 conf.modules
--rw------- 1 root root 668 Nov 1 15:39 fstab
--rw------- 1 root root 71 Nov 1 15:39 gettydefs
--rw------- 1 root root 389 Nov 1 15:39 group
--rw------- 1 root root 413 Nov 1 15:39 inittab
--rw------- 1 root root 65 Nov 1 15:39 issue
--rw-r--r-- 1 root root 746 Nov 1 15:39 ld.so.cache
--rw------- 1 root root 32 Nov 1 15:39 motd
--rw------- 1 root root 949 Nov 1 15:39 nsswitch.conf
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 pam.d
--rw------- 1 root root 139 Nov 1 15:39 passwd
--rw------- 1 root root 516 Nov 1 15:39 profile
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 387 Nov 1 15:39 rc
--rw------- 1 root root 55 Nov 1 15:39 shells
--rw------- 1 root root 774 Nov 1 15:39 termcap
--rw------- 1 root root 78 Nov 1 15:39 ttytype
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 utmp -b ../var/run/utmp
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 wtmp -b ../var/log/wtmp
-/etc/pam.d:
--rw------- 1 root root 356 Nov 1 15:39 other
-/lib:
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 45415 Nov 1 15:39 ld-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 11 Nov 1 15:39 ld-linux.so.2 -b ld-2..7.so
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 731548 Nov 1 15:39 libc-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 13 Nov 1 15:39 libc.so.6 -b libc-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 17 Nov 1 15:39 libcom_err.so.2 -b libcom_err.so.2.
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 6209 Nov 1 15:39 libcom_err.so.2.
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 153881 Nov 1 15:39 libcrypt-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 17 Nov 1 15:39 libcrypt.so.1 -b libcrypt-2..7.so
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 12962 Nov 1 15:39 libdl-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 14 Nov 1 15:39 libdl.so.2 -b libdl-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 16 Nov 1 15:39 libext2fs.so.2 -b libext2fs.so.2.4
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 81382 Nov 1 15:39 libext2fs.so.2.4
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 25222 Nov 1 15:39 libnsl-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 libnsl.so.1 -b libnsl-2..7.so
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 178336 Nov 1 15:39 libnss_files-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 21 Nov 1 15:39 libnss_files.so.1 -b libnss_files-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 14 Nov 1 15:39 libpam.so.0 -b libpam.so..64
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 26906 Nov 1 15:39 libpam.so..64
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 19 Nov 1 15:39 libpam_misc.so.0 -b libpam_misc.so..64
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 7086 Nov 1 15:39 libpam_misc.so..64
--r-xr-xr-x 1 root root 35615 Nov 1 15:39 libproc.so.1.2.6
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 libpwdb.so.0 -b libpwdb.so..54
--rw-r-r--- 1 root root 121899 Nov 1 15:39 libpwdb.so..54
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 19 Nov 1 15:39 libtermcap.so.2 -b libtermcap.so.2..8
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 12041 Nov 1 15:39 libtermcap.so.2..8
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 12874 Nov 1 15:39 libutil-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 16 Nov 1 15:39 libutil.so.1 -b libutil-2..7.so
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 14 Nov 1 15:39 libuuid.so.1 -b libuuid.so.1.1
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 8039 Nov 1 15:39 libuuid.so.1.1
-drwx--x--x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 modules
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 security
-/lib/modules:
-drwx--x--x 4 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 2..35
-/lib/modules/2..35:
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 block
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 cdrom
-/lib/modules/2..35/block:
-drwx------ 1 root root 7156 Nov 1 15:39 loop.o
-/lib/modules/2..35/cdrom:
-drwx------ 1 root root 24108 Nov 1 15:39 cdu31a.o
-/lib/security:
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 8771 Nov 1 15:39 pam_permit.so
-''*** Directory stubs for mounting''
-/mnt:
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 cdrom
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 floppy
-/proc:
-/root:
--rw------- 1 root root 176 Nov 1 15:39 .bashrc
--rw------- 1 root root 182 Nov 1 15:39 .cshrc
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 455 Nov 1 15:39 .profile
--rw------- 1 root root 4014 Nov 1 15:39 .tcshrc
-/sbin:
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 23976 Nov 1 15:39 depmod
--rwx--x--x 2 root root 274600 Nov 1 15:39 e2fsck
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 41268 Nov 1 15:39 fdisk
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 9396 Nov 1 15:39 fsck
--rwx--x--x 2 root root 274600 Nov 1 15:39 fsck.ext2
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 29556 Nov 1 15:39 getty
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 6620 Nov 1 15:39 halt
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 23116 Nov 1 15:39 init
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 25612 Nov 1 15:39 insmod
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 10368 Nov 1 15:39 kerneld
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 110400 Nov 1 15:39 ldconfig
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 6108 Nov 1 15:39 lsmod
--rwx--x--x 2 root root 17400 Nov 1 15:39 mke2fs
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 4072 Nov 1 15:39 mkfs
--rwx--x--x 2 root root 17400 Nov 1 15:39 mkfs.ext2
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 5664 Nov 1 15:39 mkswap
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 22032 Nov 1 15:39 modprobe
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Nov 1 15:39 reboot -b halt
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 7492 Nov 1 15:39 rmmod
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 12932 Nov 1 15:39 shutdown
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 6 Nov 1 15:39 swapoff -b swapon
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 5124 Nov 1 15:39 swapon
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Nov 1 15:39 telinit -b init
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 6944 Nov 1 15:39 update
-/tmp:
-/usr:
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 bin
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 lib
-drwx--x--x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 man
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 sbin
-drwx--x--x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 share
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Nov 1 15:39 tmp -b ../var/tmp
-/usr/bin:
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 37164 Nov 1 15:39 afio
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 5044 Nov 1 15:39 chroot
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 10656 Nov 1 15:39 cut
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 63652 Nov 1 15:39 diff
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 12972 Nov 1 15:39 du
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 56552 Nov 1 15:39 find
--r-x--x--x 1 root root 6280 Nov 1 15:39 free
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 7680 Nov 1 15:39 head
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 8504 Nov 1 15:39 id
--r-sr-xr-x 1 root bin 4200 Nov 1 15:39 passwd
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 14856 Nov 1 15:39 tail
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 19008 Nov 1 15:39 tr
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 7160 Nov 1 15:39 wc
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 4412 Nov 1 15:39 whoami
-/usr/lib:
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 17 Nov 1 15:39 libncurses.so.4 -b libncurses.so.4.2
--rw-r-r--- 1 root root 260474 Nov 1 15:39 libncurses.so.4.2
-/usr/sbin:
--r-x--x--x 1 root root 13684 Nov 1 15:39 fuser
--rwx--x--x 1 root root 3876 Nov 1 15:39 mklost+found
-/usr/share:
-drwx--x--x 4 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 terminfo
-/usr/share/terminfo:
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 l
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 v
-/usr/share/terminfo/l:
--rw------- 1 root root 1552 Nov 1 15:39 linux
--rw------- 1 root root 1516 Nov 1 15:39 linux-m
--rw------- 1 root root 1583 Nov 1 15:39 linux-nic
-/usr/share/terminfo/v:
--rw------- 2 root root 1143 Nov 1 15:39 vt100
--rw------- 2 root root 1143 Nov 1 15:39 vt100-am
-/var:
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 log
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 run
-drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 tmp
-/var/log:
--rw------- 1 root root 0 Nov 1 15:39 wtmp
-/var/run:
--rw------- 1 root root 0 Nov 1 15:39 utmp
-/var/tmp:
-
-----
-!!!D. Sample utility disk directory listing
-
-
-total 579
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 42333 Jul 28 19:05 cpio
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 32844 Aug 28 19:50 debugfs
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 103560 Jul 29 21:31 elvis
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 29536 Jul 28 19:04 fdisk
--rw-r-r--- 1 root root 128254 Jul 28 19:03 ftape.o
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 17564 Jul 25 03:21 ftmt
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 64161 Jul 29 20:47 grep
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 45309 Jul 29 20:48 gzip
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 23560 Jul 28 19:04 insmod
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 118 Jul 28 19:04 lsmod
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 5 Jul 28 19:04 mt -b mt-st
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 9573 Jul 28 19:03 mt-st
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 6 Jul 28 19:05 rmmod -b insmod
--rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 104085 Jul 28 19:05 tar
-lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 5 Jul 29 21:35 vi -b elvis
-
-
-!Notes
-[[1]
-
-The directory structure presented here is for root diskette use only.
-Real Linux systems have a more complex and disciplined set of policies, called
-the Filesystem
-Hierarchy Standard, for determining where files should go
.)
+Describe
[HowToBootdiskHOWTO
] here.
